Writing System

1.1 Handshapes

A handshape refers to a hand's configuration of the fingers and thumb. The initial handshape is the initial configuration of a hand at the beginning of a word. Initial handshapes are spelled as a pair and start the spelling of every word. These handshape pairs refer to the dominant hand and non-dominant hand, respectively. The handshape for a single hand is spelled as a sequence of letters. The first letter in a single handshape identifies the main handshape category. Examples of the main handshape categories are illustrated in the following figure.

A single handshape spelling is on average composed of two to four letters ending in [a, e, c, u, o], but longer spellings are possible. That single handshape sequence of letters describes the configuration of the fingers and the thumb. Specifically, the letters [a, e] describe only the thumb position, and the letters [c, u, o] describe both the thumb and fingers. Examples of their use are illustrated in the following figure.

There are two additional finger modifier characters [x] and [r]. These additional modifiers only occur with words ending in [a] or [e]. The finger modifier [x] applies to fingers that would otherwise be extended, whereas [r] applies to lone pairs of adducted fingers that would also otherwise be extended.

Hundreds of different handshape spellings are possible. An in-depth discussion of handshape spellings, the rules for spelling handshapes and animated illustrations of the most common handshapes can be viewed here: Animated Handshape Categories. To view the handshapes and spellings that correspond to the English alphabet, please see our ASL Manual Alphabet page.

An example

Let us first consider the ASL word glossed as example. The two handshapes used in this word are [le] for the dominant hand and [ba] for the non-dominant hand. Thus, the initial sign segment of this ASL word is written as [leba], illustrated by the following figure, and the entire word is written as lebatkitpj=a.

1.2 Palm Orientations

To describe the orientation of the hand in space, the plane of the hand is described within a Cartesian coordinate system. To do this, the three cardinal axes are labeled using six characters and correspond to six different orientations. These are provided in the following list:

• [i] for upwards
• [k] for downwards
• [a] for forwards
• [e] for backwards
• [j] for outwards (sideways)
• [t] for inwards (sideways)

This system and its corresponding characters are illustrated by the following figure.

The plane of the hand is then defined by two vectors, each aligned with a different axis. The first vector originates from the wrist and ends at the knuckles. The second vector originates from the palm and points away from it, perpendicular to the first vector. A single palm orientation is then written with two letters that describe the orientation of each of the two vectors. These vectors are illustrated by the following figure.

An example

Let us again consider the ASL word lebatkitpj=a, glossed as example. The first vector of the dominant hand points along the inwards axis [t] and second vector from the palm points along the downwards axis [k]. To represent the non-dominant hand, the coordinate system depicted previously is simply reflected across the signer's body. Thus, the first vector of the signer's non-dominant hand points along the upwards axis [i], whereas the palm's vector points along the inwards axis [t]. Together the two palm orientations form the written pair [tkit], illustrated by the following diagram.

1.3 Locations

Locations refer to the starting position of the hands upon initiating articulation of a signed word. While the dominant hand always participates in articulation, with the non-dominant hand participating intermittently, locations are spelled in a way that allows us to represent the location of the dominant hand alone, the non-dominant alone, or both hands together. In the following subsection, 1.3.1, we discuss the structure of spellings that describe the number of hands participating in the articulation of a word and how the hands are located relative to each other. In subsections 1.3.2 and 1.3.3, we discuss these relative locations in more depth.

1.3.2 Body locations

Locations are spelled with a combination of two to three letters corresponding to a location on the body or a location in space. The body is divided up into four main parts of the head, torso, arms, and legs. These main parts, by analogy to the six Cartesian directions, are assigned the characters: [i], [t], [j], and [k], respectively. These parts and their corresponding letters are illustrated in the following figure.

For each main part of the body, additional letters are used to locate specific positions on a body part. The body part letter is written first, followed by the specific position letter. Please refer to the Body Locations page for more diagrams of body parts and specific locations.

An example

Let us again consider the ASL word lebatkitpj=a, glossed as example. This is a two-handed word with no dominance relationship between the hands, however, only one hand receives a location in the production of this word. In such words, the hand to be located corresponds with the signer's dominant hand by default. For this example, the location is spelled as [pj], which is the palm of the non-dominant hand, illustrated in the following diagram.

By combining the location with the handshapes and palm orientations discussed in the previous sections, the initial sign segment is spelled as [lebatkitpj]. This is illustrated in the following diagram.

1.3.3 Spatial Locations

Some signs are described by locating the hands relative to their neutral space. We conceptualize neutral space as a volume of space in front of the body that a hand moves in by pivoting the arm at the elbow for angles less than or equal to 90 degrees between the upper arm and the forearm. Generally, when this angle exceeds 90 degrees or when the arm is held flexed at the shoulder, the hands are outside of their neutral space. Locations outside of the neutral space are used to describe the hands when they either begin articulating a word outside of their neutral space, or when the hands move outside of their neutral space as they articulate a word. The relative locations for the hands in the space outside of neutral space is illustrated in the following figure.

Relative spatial locations are notated differently depending on the handedness of the words, or whether or not the two hands are located together. These relative spatial locations are again written using the six Cartesian direction letters, but now capitalized.

For instance, one-handed words can be located outside neutral space when they are semantically referring to a region of the body. Here, only the relative location of the dominant hand is spelled indicating that the hand is outside its neutral space. An example of this would be the ASL word glossed as mirror, which is articulated near the signer's face. In this word, the dominant [ba] hand begins with a relative location above its neutral space, spelled with the capitalized upward [I] character. The initial sign segment is then spelled as [báieI], and the entire word is written báieI-zsj.

Likewise, two-handed words can also be located outside of neutral space when they are semantically referring to a region of the body. The location of the hands outside their neutral space is described with a single capitalized letter. An example of this would be the ASL word glossed as worry, which is articulated near the head. Here, the location of the two hands [ba] are spelled with the capitalized upward [I] character. The initial sign segment is then spelled as [baitI], and the entire word is written as baitI~re.

A final example involves two-handed words where both hands are active in articulation, and both hands articulate in different relative locations outside of their neutral space. An example of this is the ASL word glossed as protect. Here, both hands share the same handshape and palm orientation, and the beginning of the word is spelled as [setk]. Since this word is articulated with the dominant hand at a relative location that is above the non-dominant hand, the dominant hand's location is spelled with capitalized upward [I], followed by the capitalized downward [K] for the non-dominant hand. Together, the initial sign segment is spelled as [setkIK], and the entire word is written as setkIK-a. This is illustrated in the figure below.

Locations as Inflection

While found more in signed discourse, the relative location of a word is sometimes inflected in a way that adds semantic detail or emphasis. The relative location of the hands would then be articulated outside their neutral space. An example of this would be the ASL word baat=t, glossed as small. If a signer were to inflect this word by articulating it with the hands very close together, the resulting word would have a meaning more related to a gloss like very small. In such a case, the inflection is spelled with the capitalized inward [T] character. The initial sign segment would then be spelled [baatT], and the entire word written as baatT=t. The following table shows examples of other instances of inflection shown by a difference of spatial location.

ASL Word	Gloss	Inflected Form	Implied Meaning
baat=t	small	baatT=t	very small
baat-j	wide	baatJ-j	very wide
buáia=k	child	buáiaK=k	little child

2.1 The Action Descriptor

There are three action descriptors the dash [-], double-dash [=], and the tilde [~].

The dash [-] descriptor is used to describe a motion that is articulated once in a word. An example would be the ASL word bcóie-oi, glossed as eat. In this word, the [-oi] motion occurs only once and describes the [bco] handshape of the dominant hand contacting the mouth. This [-oi] motion can be repeated (or reduplicated) to produce a new word. We describe the presence of this repetition with the double-dash [=] and change the spelling to bcóie=oi. This produces the following sequence:

With the change in spelling, the new word represents a change in meaning and would be glossed as food.

Another example would be the ASL word hhéak-fuj, glossed as sit. With repetition, the spelling becomes hhéak=fuj and would be glossed as chair with the following sequence:

The exact articulation of the double-dash [=] varies based on a signer's idiolect, and we refer the reader to see the work of Supalla and Newport (1978) for a deeper discussion. To compare the articulation of the double-dash to other features in this writing system, we will now conceptualize the [=] as a complete reduplication of the dashed spelling.

By comparison to the double-dash, the tilde [~] action descriptor describes a different kind of repetition. This descriptor is used only in two-handed words where both hands are active in the motion. When the motion of the hands repeats by mirroring half of the motion across the sagittal plane of the signer's body in the second reduplication, then the tilde [~] action descriptor is used to describe that symmetry.

Consider, for example, the ASL word sfata~re, glossed as science. The first half of the word may be articulated as sfata-rej/ret with left-handed signing. The second half of the word is then articulated in the same way as sfata-rej/ret, but with right-handed signing. The diagram below illustrates the sequence of articulation. (For a discussion on the [/] in this system, see section 2.2.2, Unified Inverse Motion.)

Another way to understand the articulation is by standing in front of a mirror. If one were to articulate sfata-rej/ret either left or right-handed, then they would see in the mirror sfata-rej/ret articulated right or left-handed, respectively. In other words, the combined repetition of articulating sfata-rej/ret (left-handed), and again (right-handed) produces the single word sfata~re.

Another example would be the ALS word foat~a'e, glossed as describe. This word may be separated into a repetition of foat-a/e as in the following diagram. (For a discussion on the ['] in this system, see section 2.2.1, Reciprocating Motion.)

Unlike the double-dash, the repeating signs that the tilde describes are not identical in production. They are instead mirror images of each other. For the examples in the preceding diagram, those mirror images were made apparent by their prose descriptions. To read more about how mirroring is handled in this writing system, please refer to the Sentence Structure page.

2.2 External Hand Motion

External motions change the location of the hands. We describe two kinds: linear motion, and rotational motion. Linear motion describes the hands moving along a straight line relative to the body, and rotational motion describes the hands rotating about an axis relative to the body. Both motions are spelled using the same six Cartesian direction letters (refer to sections 1.2 and 1.3). As before, horizontal axes are described with the parallel letter pairs [a, e] and [j, t], and the vertical axes are described with the parallel letter pair [i, k].

2.2.1 Linear Motion

Linear motion refers to movement of a hand along a single axis. This kind of movement is spelled with one lowercase letter, which represents a hand's direction of travel. For example, consider the ASL word glossed as show. This is a two-handed word with both hands active. The hands have two different handshapes [le, ba] and palm orientations [tk, it]. The signer's dominant hand has a location on the non-dominant hand [pj], and the two hands have a single unified outward [-a] motion from the signer's body while maintaining contact with each other. The [-a] is singular and linear, moving along a straight path. The complete spelling is lebatkitpj-a.

The simplest spelling occurs in one-handed signs. Consider the ASL word glossed as good. The non-dominant hand is inactive. The dominant [ba] hand begins at the chin [ui] location and moves outward in a single [-a] motion, again breaking contact with the body. The word is then written as báieui-a-pj.

In two-handed signs where only the dominant hand is active and both hands begin in contact, linear motion breaks that contact to articulate the word. An example of this is the ASL word glossed as develop. Here, the [be, ba] hands are initially in contact at the [pj] location. The dominant hand then moves upward in a single [-i] motion. The word is then written as bébaiaitpj-i.

The following table lists more examples of linear motion for one-handed and two-handed words.

ASL Word	Gloss	Handedness	Placement	Non-Dom. Hand
yláakI-a	fly	one	dominant	Inactive
yláakI=a	airplane	one	dominant	Inactive
báieui-a-pj	good	one	dominant	Inactive
bébaiaitpj-i	develop	two	dominant	Inactive
sfaakfj-a	continue	two	dominant	Active

Diagonal Motion

Diagonal motion refers to simultaneous motion of a hand along two axes. This kind of movement is spelled differently using a pair of directional letters that are not parallel. They are spelled with an apostrophe ['] separating them. The apostrophe is used to describe in the spelling the two simultaneous directions of travel.

For example, consider the ASL word glossed as shout. This is a one-handed word with the dominant hand [bcati] moving forward [a] and upward [i] simultaneously from the signer's throat [ut]. The combined singular forward-upward motion is spelled [-a'i], which describes the resulting diagonal path. The complete word is written bcátiut-a'i. The following table lists more examples of diagonal motion for one-handed and two-handed words.

ASL Word	Gloss	Handedness	Placement	Non-Dom. Hand
béat-t'k	slash	one	dominant	Inactive
bcátiut-a'i	shout	one	dominant	Inactive
bbéatakbj-j'k	slope	two	dominant	Inactive
beitfj-j'k	roof	two	dominant	Active

Reciprocating Motion

An apostrophe placed between a parallel pair of directions describes a repeated motion of a hand moving back and forth along these directions. We refer to this as reciprocating motion. An example is the ASL word glossed as similar. This is a one-handed word where the dominant [ya] hand repeatedly moves outwards sideways [j] then inwards sideways [t]. The combined reciprocating motion is spelled as [=j't], the complete word is written as [yáak=j't]. The following figure shows an animated diagram of the motion.

The following table lists more examples of reciprocating motion for one-handed and two-handed words.

ASL Word	Gloss	Handedness	Placement	Non-Dom. Hand
yáia=j't	similar	one	dominant	Inactive
llétkitfj=i'k	temperature	two	dominant	Inactive
foitatfje=a'e	relationship	two	dominant	Active
fcak~j't	behavior	two	dominant	Active

2.2.2 Rotational Motion

Rotational motion refers to a hand moving along a closed curve. The path is often circular, and always occurs in a direction that is perpendicular to the rotation axis. Rotational motion is spelled with two letters, where the first letter is always [r] and the second letter corresponds to the axis of rotation.

Since articulating a rotation from the spelling may not be very intuitive for many readers, we will next describe a common method used to identify the axis of rotation called the "right-hand rule". This rule uses the [bfca] handshape depicted in the following figure.

The right-hand rule is used by articulating the [bfa] handshape, and then curling the fingers in the direction of rotation that that hand would undergo if rotating. As the hand takes the form of the [bfca] handshape, the thumb will point along the axis of rotation. For example, if the thumb points in the upward [i] direction, then the action segment is spelled [-ri]. The following figure illustrates an articulation of the movement [baak-ri] viewed from above.

Free Motion and Continuous Contact

Free rotational motion occurs when the rotating hand is either not located or specifically located in space. As an example, consider the ASL word glossed as alone. This is also a one-handed sign where the signer's dominant [le] hand begins with the index finger pointed upwards. The signer then articulates a double rotation [=ri] about a vertical axis free within the neutral space of the dominant hand. The complete word is written as léie=ri. The following table lists more examples of free motion and continuous contact for one-handed and two-handed words.

Continuously contacting rotational motion occurs when the rotating hand is in contact with a part of the body, and the axis of rotation points into or away from the point of contact. As an example, consider the ASL word glossed as enjoy. This is a one-handed sign where the signer's dominant [ba] hand begins located on the chest [st] and articulates a single rotation about an axis pointed backwards into the chest [-re]. The complete word is written as bátest-re.

ASL Word	Gloss	Handedness	Placement	Non-Dom. Hand
luéak-ri	turn around	one	dominant	Inactive
léie-ri	always	one	dominant	Inactive
bátest-re	enjoy	one	dominant	Inactive
bátest=re	please	one	dominant	Inactive
ssáakaipj=ri	wash	two	dominant	Inactive
soit=ri	celebrattion	two	dominant	Active
saitni~rt	wash face	two	dominant	Active

Momentary Contact

In the previous examples, the hands either rotate while in contact with a part of the body or freely within a neutral space. In these cases, when the hand(s) are in contact with the body, the hand(s) generally remain in contact through the whole articulation of the word. This is because the axis of rotation points into or away from the point of contact. However, there is another type of rotation that occurs when the axis neither points into or away from the point of contact. Signed words that possess these types of rotations are unique due to the momentary contact with the body that is produced.

An example would be the ASL word glossed as easy. This is a two-handed sign with the non-dominant hand inactive. The signer's dominant [ba] hand begins at the [fuj] location of the non-dominant hand then articulates a rotation such that the hand intermittently contacts that same location. The complete word is written as bábuaattifuj=ra.

The following table lists more examples of momentary contact for one-handed and two-handed words.

ASL Word	Gloss	Handedness	Placement	Non-Dom. Hand
béiani=re	beer	one	dominant	Inactive
bábuateaifuj=rt	easy	two	dominant	Inactive
yatkfuj=ra	butt heads	two	dominant	Active

Unified Inverse Motion

Some signs are produced from an in-unison free rotation of the hands. An example is the ASL word [soit=ri], glossed as celebrate. For the articulation of this word, both hands freely rotate about a vertical axis in their neutral space.

Two-handed, in-unison motion of a single rotation axis only permits momentary contact as in the ASL word [yatkfuj=ra], glossed as butt heads. When the hands are both articulated in unison and continuously in contact, the motion is spelled with two rotations separated by a forward slash [/]. The forward slash implies that the rotation spelled before it is articulated by the dominant hand and the rotation spelled after it is articulated by the non-dominant hand. For continuous contact throughout the articulation, the second rotation must be the inverse of the first, and we say the motion is unified inverse.

Another example of unified inverse motion is the ASL word glossed as America. In this two-handed word the non-dominant hand is active. To articulate the word, the dominant hand rotates with an upward [ri] rotation, while the non-dominant hand simultaneously rotates with a downward [rk] rotation. The complete spelling of the word is then Fatefje=ri/rk.

The following table lists more examples of unified inverse motion.

ASL Word	Gloss	Handedness	Placement	Non-Dom. Hand
foitatfje=ri/rk	union	two	dominant	Active
Fatefje=ri/rk	America	two	dominant	Active
fluaak=ri/rk	audio recording	two	dominant	Active

Opposed Inverse Motion

Two-handed signs may also be articulated with the hands in opposition to each other, as well as inverse. We refer to this motion as opposed inverse motion. For these kinds of words, both hands are active but cannot stay in contact, because they are not moving in unison. An example would be the ASL word glossed as mix. Here the dominant [fc] hand is held above the non-dominant [fc] hand. Both hands rotate in opposite directions in such a way that they momentarily pass over each other as they rotate. Both rotations are spelled with an apostrophe ['] between them, where the first rotation applies to the dominant hand and the second applies to the non-dominant hand. The following table lists more examples of opposed inverse motion.

ASL Word	Gloss	Handedness	Placement	Non-Dom. Hand
fcakaiIK=ri'rk	mix	two	dominant	Active
sfatateIK=ri'rk	socialize	two	dominant	Active

2.2.3 Partial Rotation

When the path of the hand follows a curve, we refer to this motion as a partial rotation since the curved path often has the appearance of a semi-circle or hop. Hops can occur along any rotational axis, but end in a linear direction that is perpendicular with that axis. For this reason, a hop is spelled as a rotation, but with a third letter that specifies the linear direction of its endpoint. As illustrated in the following figure, the rotational axis is pointed away from the signer spelled with [ra] and, since the hop is directed outward sideways along the [j] direction, the full spelling is [raj].

As an example, consider the ASL word glossed as travel. This is a one-handed word in which the signer's dominant hand [vce] articulates a single hop, rotating partially about the [e] axis, but ending at a location higher [i] than it started. The partial rotation is then spelled as [-rei], and the complete word is written vcéak-rei. The following table lists more examples of partial rotations for one-handed and two-handed words.

ASL Word	Gloss	Handedness	Placement	Non-Dom. Hand
vcéak-rei	travel	one	dominant	Inactive
vcéak=rei	journey	one	dominant	Inactive
bbátepj-rta	next	two	dominant	Inactive
lueatfj-raj	opposite	two	dominant	Active

Just as with the full rotations, partial rotations can also be articulated as a unified inverse motion. For example, consider the ASL word glossed as bring. This is a two-handed word with both hands active, and both [ba] hands begin at the side of the body outside their neutral space. The hands then hop in unison inward to their neutral space, with the dominant hand articulating [ret] and the non-dominant hand articulating [raj]. The complete word is then written baaiJT-ret/raj. The following table lists more examples of partial rotation as unified inverse motion.

ASL Word	Gloss	Handedness	Placement	Non-Dom. Hand
baai-ret/raj	bring	two	dominant	Active
baat=rej/rat	arrangement	two	dominant	Active

2.3 Internal Hand Motion

Internal hand motion refers to motion that results from changes in the configuration of the hand(s), and is divided into three categories. We call these categories fine motion, changes in handshape, and changes in palm orientation. Fine motor skills are required to articulate the motions in each of these categories. Fingerspelling, for example, requires fine motor skills and is predominantly within the changes in handshape category, but not exclusively, since different letters of the manual alphabet require changes in palm orientation as well. In particular, the articulation of motions found in the fine motion category are very similar to those of both changes in handshape and changes in palm orientation, and so, it is important to define each category clearly.

The fine motion category contains those internal motions that place an emphasis on the motion, not the word-final configuration of the hands. By contrast, the changes in handshape category are those internal motions that place an emphasis on the handshape, and the changes in palm orientation category are those internal motions that place an emphasis on the palm orientation. By emphasis, we are broadly referring to a measure of transience observed of the postures within a word and refer the reader to the work of Johnson and Liddell (2011) for a deeper discussion. The emphasis used in each of these categories is reflected in the spelling for each kind of motion. In turn, it is the placement of emphasis that allows signers to recognize styles of signing, like fingerspelling, within discourse where linguistic variation could otherwise cause confusion.

A prime example may be the ASL word vúia-o, glossed as no. This word is derived from an older form with the same gloss, the ASL word huéia-bcó, which has the same meaning, but is a fingerspelling of the English word no. The newer form is articulated with a single pinching action of the dominant hand [vu], palm facing upwards and forwards from the signer. With knowledge of the older form, one may be inclined to use an alternate spelling vúia-vuó, which captures a similar articulation and spelling with the older form. Although, this alternate spelling would place the emphasis on the word-final handshape and not the motion. Thus, the [-o] spelling in the newer form is preferred since it places the emphasis on the motion, rather than a word-final handshape.

The distinction of fine motion may be made clearer by considering the ASL word bcóia-vlé, glossed as ok. This is also a one-handed word where the dominant hand [bco], palm oriented upwards and outwards, changes to the [vle] handshape. Writing this word as vcoia-c may capture a similar appearance, since this word is often articulated quickly. This ASL word is a direct borrowing that derives from fingerspelling the acronym of the English word okay. That being the case, it is more appropriate for the final handshape to be emphasized, rather than the motion used to produce it.

In the following subsections each of the three categories are discussed further, along with tables of examples.

2.3.1 Fine Motion

Fine motion refers to emphasized movement produced by the fingers and wrists. There are five letters used to describe fine motion: [z, u, x, c, o]. A fine movement is spelled with the part of the body that is moving, where the first letter in the sequence is one of these fine motion letters.

For example, the wiggling of the fingers and wrists is spelled with [zfj, zsj], respectively. The bending of the fingers and wrists is then spelled with [ufj, usj], respectively. The flexing of the fingers is spelled with [xfj]. Flicking can be spelled on its own as [c] or used in combination with the fingers flicking off a point as [cfj]. Pinching, too, can be spelled by itself as [o], or spelled after a [z] (e.g., [zo]). The following figures show basic animations of these movements.

Wiggling

We consider wiggling to be a subtle, not necessarily organized, motion that may look like vibration or shaking when articulation is minimal. The spelling of a wiggling motion starts with the letter [z], followed by the spelling of the part of the body that performs the wiggling.

An example of wiggling is found in the ASL word glossed as boil. This is a two-handed word in which the non-dominant hand is inactive. The hands take two different handshapes [fua] and [ba], respectively. The dominant hand is held with the palm forwards and upwards [ai] below the non-dominant hand, which is held with the palm inwards and downwards [tk]. A wiggling of the fingers spelled [zfj] is articulated, which depicts fire heating a surface. For this word, the wiggling of the fingers is clearly articulated. The word is then written fuábaaitkKI-zfj.

When the wiggling motion is at a minimum, the apparent vibration of the hand(s) no longer has a distinct location and, in many cases, may be articulated from the arms or wrists. An example of this is the ASL word glossed as meat. This is a two-handed word with both hands active, where the fingers of the dominant hand [fsu] grasp the radial edge of the non-dominant hand [fa]. Together, both hands shake slightly to emphasize the point of contact (i.e., the meat of the hand). The whole word is written fsufaaktebj-z.

The following table lists more examples of wiggling for one-handed and two-handed words with [z] in their spelling.

ASL Word	Gloss	Handedness	Placement	Non-Dom. Hand
fáieui-zfj	color	one	dominant	Inactive
fábatkat-zfj	study	two	dominant	Inactive
fuaai-zfj	wait	two	dominant	Active
fsufaaktebj-z	meat	two	dominant	Active

Bending

We consider bending to be an overt motion that clearly folds the body at a specific joint. The spelling of a bending motion starts with the letter [u]. An example of this is in the ASL word glossed as yes. This is a one-handed word where bending occurs at the wrist and is spelled [usj]. The hands [se], palms forwards and downwards, bend at the wrist twice. The whole word is written seak=usj.

The following table lists more examples of bending for one-handed and two-handed words with [u] in their spelling.

ASL Word	Gloss	Handedness	Placement	Non-Dom. Hand
báak=usj	late	one	dominant	Inactive
séia=usj	yes	one	dominant	Inactive
vébatkatpj-usj	read	two	dominant	Inactive
buait-ufj	expect	two	dominant	Active
buait=ufj	hope	two	dominant	Active
baak~usj	walk	two	dominant	Active

Flexing

We refer to flexing as a flexion of one or more knuckles of the fingers and/or thumbs. A flexing motion is spelled beginning with the letter [x]. An example of flexing is the ASL word glossed as who. This is one-handed word where the dominant hand [lfa] is in contact with the chin [ui] via the fully extended thumb. The word is then articulated with a flexing of the index finger [xfj]. The complete word is written lfáitui=xfj.

The following table lists more examples of flexing for one-handed and two-handed words with [x] in their spelling.

ASL Word	Gloss	Handedness	Placement	Non-Dom. Hand
léia-xfj	ask	one	dominant	Inactive
lfáitui=xfj	who	one	dominant	Inactive
bćitoi=x	orange	one	dominant	Inactive
leia=xfj	test	two	dominant	Active

Flicking

We refer to flicking as the motion produced when the curled or bent fingers suddenly break contact with the thumb or another part of the body. A flicking motion is spelled beginning with the letter [c]. This means that, if the flicking action is off of the thumb, then the handshape of the active hand(s) must be spelled with the letter [o]. If the thumb is not involved then the active hand(s) must be spelled with a [u] or [c] and located on the body. An example is the ASL word glossed as light. This is a one-handed word where the dominant hand [flco] makes contact with the chin [ui]. The flicking motion is articulated with the curled middle finger of the [flco] handshape, suddenly and repeatedly breaking contact with the thumb. Since the dominant hand is placed at the chin with the palm facing it, the flicking motion strikes the chin. The complete word is written flcóieui=c.

The following table lists more examples of flicking for one-handed and two-handed words with [c] in their spelling.

ASL Word	Gloss	Handedness	Placement	Non-Dom. Hand
lcóieI-c	understand	one	dominant	Inactive
flcóieui=c	light	one	dominant	Inactive
hcóseatsj-c	beat	two	dominant	Inactive
flcóseaksj=c	melon	two	dominant	Inactive
lcoitqi-c	surprise	two	dominant	Active
flcoit-c	awful	two	dominant	Active

Pinching

We refer to pinching as the bent or curled fingers contacting the thumb. A pinching motion is spelled beginning with the letter [o]. This implies that the handshape of the hand performing the action must be spelled with one of the two letters [c, u]. An example of pinching can be seen in the ASL word glossed as bird. This is a one-handed word where the dominant [lu] hand is located at the mouth with the palm upwards and forwards from the signer. Then the index finger and thumb of the dominant hand articulate a pinching motion, such that they repeatedly come together, depicting a birds beak opening and closing. The complete word is written lúiaoi=o.

The following table lists more examples of pinching for one-handed and two-handed words with [o] in their spelling.

ASL Word	Gloss	Handedness	Placement	Non-Dom. Hand
vúia-o	no	one	dominant	Inactive
lúiaoi=o	bird	one	dominant	Inactive
búbaiaakfuj-o	deflate	two	dominant	Inactive

3.1 Fingerspelling

Fingerspelling refers to the signed use of a manual alphabet, for which a set of unique handshapes palm orientations, and locations correspond to a written letter of a spoken language's writing system. For instance, the ASL manual alphabet maps different handshape and palm orientation pairs to the English alphabet. Signers then can articulate English words letter by letter through a sequence of those pairs. Since the average number of characters in an English word is five, fingerspelled words are therefore identifiable as having an average of four action segments when spelled in our system.

The following table provides corresponding ASL spellings of the letters in the English manual alphabet. These spellings are based on forms found in our source materials. To view the animated handshapes corresponding to the English alphabet, please see our ASL Manual Alphabet page.

In their isolated forms, several of our sources stipulate a hyper-articulation for the English letters M, N, and T that would be spelled as [sméia-z, shéia-z, sléia-z], respectively, with the fingers flexed around the thumb. Likewise, the English letter F might be articulated as [bséia-z] with the fingers closed and the index finger tightly flexed. These hyper-articulations are likely more recognizable to some signers. However, as with any language, the true form of articulation for each letter will vary depending on the phonetic environment, the type of discourse, and dialect of the signer.

It is also common to articulate English words with the inactive non-dominant handshape [le] placed at the wrist of the dominant hand, so as to draw attention to it. For example, the English word the when fingerspelled in ASL may be written as luéia-huéat-bxéia. Though, with the non-dominant handshape [le] placed at the wrist, the word is then written two-handed as lueléiatesuj-huéat-bxéia. The following table lists more examples of fingerspelling with the ASL manual alphabet.

3.2 Drawing

When signing about abstract shapes, the hands can be used to draw the outline of those shapes, and we refer to this as drawing. The resulting sequence of articulation may be quite complex, especially when that shape outlines the path or behavior of an object. To write them, they would appear as a sequence of multiple action segments. While these forms may be largely contextual and dynamic in articulation, some are regular and frequent enough to be ascribed distinct meanings. It is these types of regular forms that exemplify this group.

As an example, consider the ASL word glossed as square. This is a two-handed word with both hands active, and where its articulation draws the outline of a square. The index finger of both [lue] handshapes begin in contact and move outwards sideways from each other, then downwards, and finally come back together in contact.

For more abstract shapes, the sequence of "move outwards sideways from each other, then downwards" (spelled [-j-k]) could be extended to a longer sequence of motions to suit the needs of the signer. The following table lists more examples of regular forms of drawing written as one-handed and two-handed words.

3.3 Tapping

Words in this group are articulated with a tapping motion that either contacts the body momentarily at different body locations or appears to tap in multiple spatial locations.

For example, consider the ASL word léia-oi-gi, glossed as deaf. This one-handed word, with the palm oriented upwards and forwards from the signer, is articulated with the dominant [le] hand. The index finger in this handshape taps first near the mouth, and then near the ear.

To contrast, consider the ASL word héat-k-raj, glossed as hard-of-hearing. This, too, is a one-handed word where the dominant [he] hand articulates a downwards motion, as the first tap. The hand then hops once in a partial rotation that ends outwards to the signer's side, as the second tap. For this word, the tapping of the two different spatial locations is implicit and are reflected in the directional spelling of the motion. The following table lists more examples of tapping for one-handed and two-handed words.

3.4 Swiping

Words in this group are articulated with a swiping motion that swipes past a location on the body. In other words, while a hand is moving it makes momentary contact with another location on the body. This kind of motion can be recognized by the lack of a body location written in the initial sign segment. Instead, a body location is written as the first action segment, followed by a second action segment characterized by a linear motion.

For example, consider the ASL word glossed as last. This is a two-handed word in which only the dominant hand is active. While moving downward, the pinky finger of the dominant handshape [ye] makes momentary contact with the pinky finger of the non-dominant handshape [ye] and continues in the same direction of travel. This action segment of this word is written with a body location followed by a linear motion [-fj-k]. The complete word is then written as yyéatte-fj-k. The following table lists more examples of swiping.

3.5 Bounded Rotations

Words in this group are unique in that they are articulated with a rotating motion prior to contacting the body. We refer to these as bound rotations, such that the first action segment of a rotation is followed by a second action segment that is characterized by a body location.

A first example is the ASL word sséak-rt-iasj, glossed as lock. This is a two-handed word in which only the dominant hand is active. Here, both hands [se] begin with the palms oriented forwards and downwards. The dominant hand then rotates while changing the palm orientation to upwards and backwards, then contacts the wrist of the non-dominant hand. The convention here is that the rotation is small and relatively near to the word-final point of contact.

In contrast, consider the ASL word ssétebj-rt-pj, glossed as year. Here, the two hands [se] begin together, with dominant hand located on the radial edge of the non-dominant hand [bj]. Then the dominant hand rotates, making word-final contact in the same location at the start of the word. By comparison to that in the first example, the rotation in this word is larger.

Another spelling convention is seen for the ASL word weatbj~rt-bj, glossed as world. This is similar to the second example in that both hands [we] begin together, with the dominant hand located on the radial edge of the non-dominant hand [bj]. This example differs, however, in that the two hands then articulate a mirrored rotation around one another, ending in contact at the same word-initial location [bj]. Likewise, by comparison, the rotation produced in this word would be of a similar size to that in the second example. The following table lists more examples of bounded rotation.

3.6 Oscillating Directional Motion

Words in this group are articulated with a sequence of two types of motion that appear to be simultaneous. The first motion is small and repetitive, often distinguished as repetitive internal motion or external reciprocating motion, while the other motion is larger and less frequent by comparison, characterized as linear motion or located motion. Together, the hand(s) appears to oscillate in a single direction, and we refer to this as oscillating directional motion.

Oscillating directional motion is spelled with a sequence of at least two action segments. A basic example of this is the ASL word vcéiaoi=j't-a, glossed as snake, which depicts the motion of a snake. Here, the dominant [vce] hand, palm oriented upwards and forwards from the signer, begins in contact with the mouth. Then, a repeated sideways outwards-inwards reciprocating motion [=j't] is articulated simultaneously with the hand traveling in a single forwards linear motion [-a]. The following table lists more examples of oscillating directions for one-handed and two-handed words.